The Limits of Formalism in Defining Literariness - Literature Essay Samples

Russian formalism, as a movement, arose to prominence in a time of great artistic change, where experimentation and the avant-garde rose to the forefront of literature, and introduced new narrative structures and styles. Russian formalism can therefore be interpreted as a reaction to the chaotic literature of its time, the early Twentieth-Century, especially in how it attempted to define the notion of literariness through a more modernised, scientific method. The Formalists attempted to contain literature, to provide it, through a more objective, scientific method, with set rules and parameters that provided it order and form. Literariness, for the Formalists, was something that was achieved through the use of a certain method in a text, and was not an innate quality given to any piece of fiction, prose or poetry. It could be argued, however, that though Russian formalism provided an ordered method through which to understand the chaotic literature of its time, this method is unable to fully comprehend literariness. By identifying literature through a fixed definition, Russian formalism disregards several genres of what is considered canon literature, and makes literature a form of art based solely on abstract methods and obscure styles. In his ‘Introduction to the Formal Method’, Boris Eichenbaum wrote: ‘that the object of literary science, as literary science, ought to be the investigation of the specific properties of literary material, of the properties that distinguish such material from material of any other kind’1. Eichenbaum, considered by many as representative of Russian formalism, thus defines literary science as the investigation into what makes a piece of material literary. What elements of a text make it literary and separate it from another text that is not? We can safely assume that, due to the fact that Eichenbaum introduces this idea in an essay titled ‘Introduction to the Formal Method’, Russian formalism can be referred to as a literary science, and thus Russian formalism becomes a method used to distinguish the literary from the non-literary. Eichenbaum writes that Russian formalism distinguished the literary from the non-literary through recognising the â€Å"opposition between ‘poetic’ language and ‘practical’ language.† (250) Practical language, as defined by the Formalists, is simply language that has â€Å"no autonomous value and [is] simply merely a means of communication.† (250) Practical language is thus language whose sole purpose is to convey information; it is a tool of communication. The conversation of our daily lives (â€Å"Hello, how are you?† â€Å"I’m doing well.†) is an example of practical language as it is simply communication from one person to another, consisting solely of the exchange of information and pleasantries, and holds no symbolic meaning. Furthermore, everyday conversation is non-literary due to its absence of autonomy. Conversation, the Formalists suggested, is not independent from the converser’s language precedent; it is recognised by them and processed without being truly being appreciate for its intricacies and nuances. Practical language, the Formalists argued, does not make a text literary. Textbooks, non-fiction magazines, brochures, and recipe books are therefore classified as non-literary texts as they solely convey information and hold no autonomous value; there is no symbolic meaning to a recipe, it is just a means through which to transfer the steps on how to cook a tasty meal, and the language it uses does not challenge the readers perception of the meal. The opposite of practical language is poetic language, something which Eichenbaum states is created through the process of estrangement. Estrangement, for Eichenbaum, is the process of distorting the familiar into something unfamiliar, making the ordinary extraordinary. A recipe, just in a plain and simple form, is a non-literary text as it consists solely of practical language. If we were, however, to write a recipe using a variety of techniques and devices (metaphor, allegory, diaspora, etc.) then we could make the recipe literary as it has been estranged and made poetic, the reader is forced by the unfamiliar mix of images and descriptions to comprehend the meal differently. This is, for the Formalists, what makes a text literary, and thus places it into the sphere of art. As Eichenbaum writes, â€Å"Art is conceived as a way of breaking down automatism in perception, and the aim of the image is held to be, not making a meaning more accessible for our comprehension, but bringing about a special perception of a thing, bringing about the ‘seeing’, and not just the ‘recognising’ of it.† (251) A text is made literary, therefore, when its language is estranged and thus forces the reader to perceive the content differently, allowing them to become more aware of its meaning. This definition of literariness can easily be applied to modernist texts, such as James Joyce’s Ulysses. In Ulysses, Joyce used a variety of techniques to record how the human consciousness perceives reality accurately, these techniques including interior monologue, free indirect discourse and, most famously, stream of consciousness. These techniques clearly estrange the language and force the reader to perceive the text differently. Take, for instance, Joyce’s description of his hero, Leopold Bloom, having a sexual fantasy set in a bathhouse: â€Å"He foresaw his pale body reclined in it at full, naked, in a womb of warmth, oiled by melting scented soap, softly laved. He saw his trunk and limbs rippled over and sustained, buoyed lightly upward, lemonyellow: his navel, bud of flesh: and saw the dark tangled curls of his bush floating, floating hair of the stream around the limp father of thousands, a languid floating flower.† It is clear to see how Joyce estranges the image of Bloom masturbating at a bathhouse, disjointing his physiology and using metaphorical objects to represent body parts. Formalists would argue that this is a good example of poetic language, that Joyce has written something inherently literary due to the fact he forces the reader to perceive the image differently than they would if they were actually at the bathhouse with Bloom. Perhaps, then, the Formalist definition of literature is correct; literariness is achieved through a process of estrangement, the distortion of perception. Though this definition of literature can easily be applied to the more experimental, avant-garde works of the early Twentieth-Century, it is, however, more difficult to apply to literature as a whole. It is possible that Russian formalism is a form of criticism that best suites certain genres and styles, but when applied to literature throughout time it can become irrelevant. If a text is only made literary by â€Å"breaking down automatism in perception†, then several areas of conflict arise. The genre of realism, for example, offers a challenge to this definition, realism being the attempt to record the everyday life as accurately as possible, convincing the reader of its reality, and attempting to relate to their experiences as closely as possible through language they are accustomed to. Elizabeth Gaskell’s Mary Barton is seen as a prime example of the industrial novel, a form of realism specifically designed to relate to the daily experiences of the Victorian working class. In the novel, Gaskell makes no attempt to distort the perception of the reader, instead her aims are to record the plights of Manchurian factory workers. This section, from the opening chapter of the novel, shows a definitive attempt to accurately convey the physiology of John Barton, the father of the titular heroine: â€Å"He was below the middle size and slightly made; there was almost a stunted look about him; and his wan, colourless face, gave you the idea, that in his childhood he had suffered from the scanty living consequent upon bad times, and improvident habits. His features were strongly marked, though not irregular, and their expression was extreme earnestness; resolute either for good or evil, a sort of latent stern enthusiasm.† In many ways this passage can be read as an example of practical language. Gaskell makes no overt attempt to estrange the image of John Barton, instead presenting a man who we, as the reader, can easily envision in our imagination. Metaphor and simile are not used to describe his body, as they are for Bloom’s, and we are not forced to perceive the human anatomy any differently than we already do in our everyday lives. Gaskell simply communicates to the reader the objective appearance of John Barton. This passage is representative of the novels style as a whole, and thus the question as to whether the novel can be, from a Formalist perspective, be considered literary arises. Realism is generally considered one of the major genres of literature, and many writers thought to be among the finest in history are considered to write realist novels, Gaskell included amidst the likes of Charles Dickens, George Eliot, and Gustave Flaubert. Dickens, Eliot, and Flaubert are generally considered to be major figures within the literary canon, but if they adhere to a genre that defies the Formalist method, two possibilities arise. Firstly, if the Formalist method is assumed to be the correct way to judge whether a text is literary or not, then realism, through its overt use of practical language and its lack of estrangement, is a genre of literature that is not literature. Instead, it is merely the transfer of imagined information, of fictional images that hold no symbolic value, and differ in no way from the everyday lives of the reader. The second possibility is to the contrary of the first, and is possibly the more feasible of the two: the method adopted by Russian formalism is impractical and cannot be applied to literature as a whole. If literature can only be defined as a form of art where the normal is made strange, then a great part of what is considered literature should be disregarded and robbed of the label â€Å"art†. There have been efforts on both ends of a spectrum of styles to write with opposing intentions, to make literature as unfamiliar as possible on the one end, and as close to human experience as possible on the other. Often times the two attempts get distorted and confused; Joyce’s use of stream of consciousness may distance the reader due to its abrasiveness, intensity, and estrangement, but Ulysses is often considered by critics as as close to a realistic representation of human consciousness as ever has been attempted, maybe making it as familiar as humanly possible to what the reader actually experiences on a constant basis. On the other hand, while Gaskell merely communicates to the reader the physiological information of John Barton, she distances herself from realistic human experience by consciously omitting an endless amount of information, and therefore estranges the way in which the reader perceives reality. The concept of estrangement, when read into, is therefore too vague and loose an idea to be used to define something as vast and diverse as literature. There is, therefore, no one way to define literature as the Formalists attempt to do. The variety of genres and styles do not allow for a definition of literariness to exist, literature being too diverse to be contained as such. The definition attempted by the Russian formalists can only be applied to certain texts totally, or if it were to be applied to literature as a whole it would provide only a partial definition open to a variety of criticisms and counterarguments. For the Formalist definition of literature to work, the literary canon would have to be wildly accepted as consisting solely of works written in obscure, experimental styles that are difficult for the reader to decipher and understand. The distinction between poetic and practical language is too vague and open to interpretation to have a lasting effect, and though estrangement can be accepted as a tool for making a text literary, it cannot be seen as the sole property in defining literariness.

Recession Within Americ Recession - 778 Words

Recession within America Today the United States Americans more than ever; there is a constant fear of an awaiting recession due to the economy. The recession in the later 2000’s has been known as the greatest economic decline since the Great Depression. The United States of America, the banks and businesses are not able to succeed and are failing due to the market. Many people across America cannot afford their homes or bills due to the unemployment rate that seems to keep increasing. Many people blame this on the higher oil or gas prices, and the wars that the United States acts on. The recession has overall declined our economic activity in business profits, employment, and investment. This is all due to our falling market, and the rise of prices that so many Americans cannot afford. The American dream is sought after by so many people within the United States. Many people spend an entire life time trying to build that dream and prepare for their retirement. The ec onomic growth within the United States and our American government plays a big part in our future. In the past ten years, the American government has been on a roller-coaster with its housing market. The housing market started to go through a big decline in 2007; construction was falling at an all-time high. From 2000 to 2006 there were around 1.5 million homes that were built each and every year to replace the ones that were in disrepair. If the market was to keep the trend of 1.5 million homesShow MoreRelatedHofstede s Value Dimensions Of Culture870 Words   |  4 Pagesdistinctively different from each other, it has not interfere with their business cooperations and cultural exchanges. On the contrary, â€Å"more than a billion dollars of goods and services flow between two contries each day† ( Baden, 2013). What factors within the culture promoted such business cooperation between two countries? What factors could interfere with such intercultural exchange? This arti cle will duscuss the similarities and differences between two countries with the use of Hofstede’s value

Characteristics Of Nonverbal Communication - 1169 Words

Title 6 Characteristics of non-verbal communication include, â€Å"facial expression, non-verbal cues, gestures, body postures, interpersonal distance, touching behaviors, gaze and visual attention† (Matsumoto Juang, 2013, p. 244). Nonverbal communication is used constantly between each person because situations are not always right for talking. There are different types of gestures used to communicate and some include speech illustrators, emblems, paralinguistic cues, proxemics and haptics. Speech illustrators are, â€Å"movements that are directly tied to speech, and serve to illustrate or highlight what is being said† (Matsumoto Juang, 2013, p. 245). Examples of these would be holding up your finger to show the number one. This is†¦show more content†¦236). An example of this is when someone is speaking and it sounds like they are yelling but really it is just them emphasizing the words because it’s their cue. Sometimes people think someone from anot her culture is yelling when they are speaking which can sound annoying. This is not the case as the individual is just not used to the tone. The second to last one is called proxemics and this is, â€Å"The use of space in interpersonal interactions† (Matsumoto Juang, 2013, p. 247). This is the distance at which people choose to engage with each other at. The ranges may vary but an interesting finding is, â€Å"foreigners who spoke in English adopted the American conversational distance compared to when speaking with others from their home country in their native language† (Matsumoto Juang, 2013, p. 248). This brings into question how much of this is associated with fitting into the new environment. If everyone else is at the same distance then it feels more comfortable to do the same. The final one is haptics which is another word for the touch that takes place in the interpersonal interactions. 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Millie Dowler Essay Example For Students

Millie Dowler Essay Again, my analysis will consider whether all people have an equal right to participate in both capacities. The explanations outlined above provide a means whereby it is possible to investigate whether a global public sphere is emergent in the news. However, it is first important to outline the news production process. The news is supposed to be objective and neutral and is often described as a window on the world but this can be misleading. The news is a complex and bias process therefore in order to discuss the possibility of a global public sphere in respect of global news; it is valuable to define the key term itself. We will write a custom essay on Millie Dowler specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Although the proper definition of news is new information about events the real meaning of the term in our society is rather different. News has come to mean information which has been collected, shaped and then passed on or reported by professional, profit-making organizations. The extent to which perceptions of news and the role of the media have changed, is revealed in the contrast between the work of Franklin, who sets entertainment against the more desirable news and information, and the perspective found in with John Fiske. Fiske attacked what was then an established idea: the notion that news is somehow factual or objective. Speaking of television he wrote that the basic definition of news as factual information gives us only half the story10. In other words Fiske objected not to sensation dressed up as news, but the idea of news as fact. Fiske goes on to speak of norms, a set of values which embody the ideology of the dominant classes. 11 This point of view casts the news organization in a certain role-as the servant of the dominant forces in society. News is therefore, a reflection or embodiment of dominant interests and values. Television news is made via a routine production process through news selection and news values. News values derive from the ideas or assumptions which form the ideological background to the work of the journalist and the news editor. OSullivan et, al define news values as The professional codes used in the selection, construction and presentation of news stories in corporately produced mainstream press and broadcasting. 12 News values have been categorized by a number of writers. Mcshane sets out five central tenets which journalists are likely to follow in their news-gathering operations. These are conflict, danger to the community, the unusual, scandal and individualism. Dutton produced a list of twelve of the most significant news values. The list may be summarized as follows: Frequency, this refers to something Dutton calls the time span taken by the event. He cites the example of murders, which happen suddenly and whose meaning is established quickly. The murder of Jessica Chapman and Holly Wells is a prime example of this news value. The threshold or amplitude of an event refers to its size, the bigger the event, the better. There is a threshold below which an event will fail to be considered worthy of attention, and will not be reported. The more clear cut and uncomplicated an event the better, Dutton calls this Unambiguity. Although events do not have to be simple, the range of possible meanings they are able to generate must remain limited. In this way the event will be accessible to the public. Meaningfulness is an important news value. Dutton divides this into two categories, following Galtung and Ruge, who called this news value Familiarity. The first category is cultural proximity in which the event agrees of a specific culture. The second is relevance, where events will be reported and discussed if they seem to have an impact on the home culture. This impact is usually represented in terms of some type of threat. The threat of terrorism is a current issue after the September 11th attacks which changed the world. Britain and the USA are close alliances and so this story was culturally significant to the British and also to people all over the world. .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119 , .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119 .postImageUrl , .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119 , .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119:hover , .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119:visited , .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119:active { border:0!important; } .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119:active , .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119 .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc9ffd78dbe1ab599a6ba9d02f6d40119:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Secret Crimes of Compassion EssayAudiences are interested in events which contain reference to the values, beliefs and attitudes that it shares therefore, Ideology plays an important part in the construction of news. The meaningfulness of an event is linked closely to another news value, the reference to elite nations. Elections, natural disasters, wars and other significant events are more likely to be reported in the western press if they occur in the developed world. In terms of the September 11th attacks, the event automatically qualified as important news because importance was given to the number of deaths aswell as the country in which the event occurred. This is an example of events having to attain a certain threshold. Unexpectedness operates through the categories of the meaningful and the consonant. The rarity of an event leads to its circulation in the public domain, the story in which a woman was pregnant with eight babies or the boy who gave birth to his twin are key examples of sensationalism in the news. Similarly, negativity refers to the idea that bad news is good news. Audiences will flock to a story that has shock value but ignore one which is routine. Audiences are held by the dramatic power of the tragic narrative. to use the murders of Jessica Chapman and Holly Wells once again, the girls were very young and were taken advantage of by someone or people they trusted. The human interest angle is an important way of making events palatable or comprehensible to audiences. The story of the girls murders achieved importance in the news, just as the murder of Millie Dowler and therefore were both covered for some time on television and in the press and this refers to the news value of continuity. Composition refers to the idea that most news outlets attempt to balance the reporting of events, so in terms of composition if there has been a great deal of bad news, some items of a more positive nature will be added, for example the birth of a child in the royal family. This links to the reference to elite persons in the news. The famous and the powerful are often treated as being of greater importance than those who are regarded as ordinary, in the sense that their decisions and actions are supposed to affect large numbers of people.

Renewable and Nonrenewable sources an Example by

Renewable and Nonrenewable sources Natural resources are defined as those items for consumption and features of the planet earth that allow it to sustain life as well as to satisfy the needs of the living creatures on the planet (Smith 2). Water as well as land is both considered to be natural resources. Similarly are the biological resources that live in both. Mineral resources consist of sand, oil, metals, stone, and coal (Smith 2). Moreover, climate, sunlight, and air are natural resources too (Smith 2; Baland and Platteau 9). These resources are utilized to produce food, fuel, and supplies for the manufacture of commodities (Smith 2; Baland and Platteau 9). Need essay sample on "Renewable and Nonrenewable sources" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Biological resources are considered to be the most important natural resources (Smith 2). Since the early days, people have used wood from trees for fuel and shelter. Biological resources, in turn, are dependent on other natural resources (Smith 2). Most plants and animals could not live without air, sunshine, soil, and water. Mineral resources are less important than biological resources in supporting life, but they are extremely important to modern living. Mineral fuels including coal, oil, and natural gas provide heat, light and power. Minerals serve as raw materials for the manufacture of certain goods, such as automobiles, plastics, and refrigerators (Smith 3; Baland and Platteau 9). Soil as a renewable source Soil is valuable natural resource that encompasses a large portion of the earths surface (Smith 3). All living creatures on the planet rely on it as a source of food. The flora is rooted in it and acquires nutrients from it. The fauna acquires nutrients from the flora or other fauna that consume plants. A variety of microbes found in the soil cause lifeless creatures to decompose, which assist in bringing back the nutrients to the soil. Furthermore, several types of fauna seek refuge in the soil. Soil forms gradually but it is damaged easily. It must be preserved in order for it to keep on sustaining life on the planet (Smith 3; Baland and Platteau 9). Air as a renewable source Air may be defined as a mixture of gases that surrounds the earth (Smith 3). Without air, there could be no life on the earth. All living things animals and plants need air to stay alive. Air shields the earth from certain harmful rays from the sun and other objects in outer space. At the same time, it traps the heat that comes from the sun. In this way, air helps keep the earth warm enough to support life (Smith 3). All living things must have water to live, just as they must have air. Water as a renewable source Water is the most universal substance present of the planet (Smith 4; Baland and Platteau 9). In the absence of water, life on earth will not be possible. All living creatures on the planet need water in order to survive. Indeed all living creature consists mostly of water. Life itself, as most scientists believe originated from the saline waters of the oceans (Smith 4; Baland and Platteau 9). All living creature depend on water for survival (Smith 4; Baland and Platteau 9). This is due to the fact that, the course of life, from food intake to the elimination of waste involves water. However, human beings rely on it not solely as a means of survival. Human beings depend on it to sustain their lifestyle. Water is used in residences. It is used to produce commodities. It is employed to crow crops in parts of the world where water is scarce (Smith 4; Baland and Platteau 9). Wood as a renewable source Wood is a tough substance under the bark of trees, shrubs, and certain other plants (Baland and Platteau 5). The physical properties of wood, plus its chemical composition are what makes wood as one of the most valuable natural resources on earth. Wood is used to make thousands of products, including baseball bats, furniture, lumber, musical instruments, cellophane, charcoal, and paper (Baland and Platteau 9). Woods physical properties make it especially useful for construction work. It is tough, strong, and easy to handle. Wood also insulates well, does not rust, and resists high heat better than steel. However, wood shrinks and swells, depending on how much moisture it loses or absorbs (Baland and Platteau 9). Petroleum as a nonrenewable source Any greasy substance that does not dissolve in water, but can be dissolved in ether, is classified as oil (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 54). There are many different kinds of oil. Most are lighter than water and are liquid at room temperature (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 54). Petroleum is considered to be among the most important natural resources that the planet earth has (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 54). Some people refer to it as black gold. However, petroleum is best identified to be the lifeblood of developed nations of the world. Fuels produced from it generate energy used to run vehicles, aircrafts, industrial plants, farm tools, trucks, trains, and vessels. It is also utilized to provide heat as well as power for residential and well as industrial establishments. Overall, it supplies practically half of the energy consumed in the planet (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 54). Coal as a nonrenewable source Coal is a black or brown rock that can be ignited and burned (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 72). As coal burns, it produces energy in the form of heat. The heat from coal can be used to heat buildings and to make or process various products. But the heat is used mainly to produce electricity. Coal is also used to make coke, an essential raw material in the manufacture of iron and steel. Other substances obtained in the coke-making process are used to manufacture such products as drugs, dyes, and fertilizers (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland). Coal was once the main source of energy in all industrial countries. Coal-burning steam engines provided most of the power in these countries from the early 1800s to the early 1900s (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland). Since the early 1900s, petroleum and natural gas have become the leading sources of energy throughout much of the world. Unlike coal, petroleum can easily be made into gasoline and the other fuels needed to run modern transportation equipment. Natural gas is often used in place of coal to provide heat (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 72). But the worlds supplies of petroleum and natural gas are being used up rapidly. Increased use of coal, especially for producing electricity could help relieve the growing shortage of gas and oil. However, the use of coal involves certain problems. The burning of coal has been a major cause of air pollution (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 72). Gas as a nonrenewable source Gas or fuel is considered as one of the worlds most valuable resources. Gas is burned in order to supply heat as well as to generate power for industrial consumption (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 97). In the chemical business, the chemical found in gas is used in order to create certain products as detergents, medicines, plastics as well as various other products (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 97). People sometimes confuse it with gasoline, which is often called simply gas. But gasoline is a liquid (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 97). On the other hand, gas fuel like air and steam is a gaseous form of matter. That is, it does not occupy a fixed amount of space as liquid and solids do (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 97). Gases are classified into two types. One is natural gas and the other is manufactured gas (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 97). Roughly all the gas consumed in both the United States and Canada is natural gas (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland). The natural forces that produced gas are usually located by or in the vicinity of oil deposits (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 97). On the other hand, manufactured gas is formed mainly from both coal and petroleum, employing heat as well as some chemical procedures (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 97). Manufactured gas costs more than natural gas and is used in regions where large quantities of the natural fuel are not available. Wherever large quantities of natural gas are available, gas is the most popular cooking fuel. One reason for its popularity is that it costs less than most other fuels. In addition, a homemaker can have the desired amount of heat instantly, control the heat easily and even automatically, and shut it off instantly. Uranium as a nonrenewable source Uranium is a silvery-white, radioactive metal (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). It is the main source of nuclear energy. It is more plentiful than such common elements as iodine, mercury, and silver. But only tiny amounts of uranium are present in most of the rocks in which it is found. Uranium is highly reactive, and it combines with most other elements to form chemical compounds. These compounds are always highly poisonous (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). Uranium is used chiefly as a fuel for nuclear reactors (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). The reactors produce nuclear energy with which nuclear power plants generate electricity. Uranium is also used in making atomic bombs and some other nuclear weapons. Medical researchers use it to produce radiation for certain experiments. Also, uranium is used in research to produce radioactive isotopes and such artificial elements as neptunium and plutonium (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). Uranium and its compounds have been used for various purposes for more than 2,000 years (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). Colored glass produced about A.D. 79 contains uranium oxide, and this substance has been used through the centuries to color glass. For nearly 100 years after the discovery of uranium in 1789, it continued to be used chiefly as a pigment in glass manufacturing. Uranium was also used as pigment in painting china and as a chemical for processing photographs (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). In 1896, the French physicist Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium is radioactive (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). His achievement marked the first time that any element has been found to be radioactive. Becquerels discovery led to a surge of scientific interest in uranium (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). In 1938, the German chemist Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman used uranium to produce the first artificial nuclear fission (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). In 1942, Italian-born physicist Enrico Fermi and his co-workers at the University of Chicago produced the first artificial nuclear chain reaction. They used uranium as the fissionable material. Fermis work led to the development of the atomic bomb (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). Scientific research also led to peacetime uses of uranium. In 1954, the U.S. Navy launched the Nautilus, the first submarine powered by nuclear fuel (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). In 1957, the first nuclear power plant in the United States began to operate (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). Since the early 1970s, nuclear energy has become an important source of energy (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). Many scientists predict that it will continue to play a major role in the future. However, the supply of easily obtainable uranium is decreasing, and the cost of locating, refining, and enriching uranium remains high (Torleif, Bergesen, and Roland 124). In addition, many people are concerned about the safety of nuclear energy production. Work Cited Baland, Jean-Marie, and Jean-Philippe Platteau. Halting degradation of natural resources: Is there a Role for Rural Communities? New York. Oxford University Press, 1996. Smith, Sanford S. Renewable and nonrenewable resources. 2006. The Pennsylvania State University. Torleif, Haugland, Helge Ole Bergesen, and Kjell Roland. Energy Structures and Environmental Futures. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

A Comaprison Of Freud And Fromm Essays - Freudian Psychology

A Comaprison Of Freud And Fromm Essays - Freudian Psychology A Comaprison Of Freud And Fromm Sigmund Freud was born in Monrovia on May 6,1856. He entered the University of Vienna in 1873 at the age of 17. He finished his degree in 1881. Freud died in England in 1939. He was an active therapist, theorist and writer to the very end. ( Ewen 19-20) Erich Fromm was born four years after Freud in 1900 in Frankfurt, Germany. Unlike Freud, Fromm had no medical training in his background. He received his PHD from the University of Heidelberg and later studied at Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute. Erich Fromm died March 16, 1980 in Switzerland. (Ewen 187) While Freud and Fromm were contemporaries and shared some basic beliefs, their approach to most issues varied greatly. Freuds attitude was purely scientific. Fromm desired to humanize things. Fromm accepted the importance of unconscious, biological drives, repression and defense mechanisms, but rejected Freuds theory of id, ego and superego. Fromm did not believe in specific developmental stages. He believed that the growing child slowly learns to distinguish between I and not I, through contact with the environment, notably those involving the parents.(Ewen 194) Fromm contends that personality development continues into adulthood. He believes that if a child keeps up with the increasing feelings of isolation, that anxiety can be kept to a minimal and personality development proceeds normally. Freuds well-known theory is that the personality is determined during the first five years of life. He believes we proceed through a series of psychosexual stages: oral, anal, urethral, phallic, a latency period and genital. Freud contends that the genital stage is the goal of normal development and that it represents true maturity. ( Hansen 25-26) Fromm warns against pathogenic behavior because it can damage the childs sense of reliance. He believed healthy personality is illustrated by biophilia, love, creativity and reason. ( Ewen 195-196) These characteristics compromise the productive frame of orientation. The nonproductive frames include narcissism, necrophilia, dependence, compulsive strivings for power or wealth and the mechanisms of escape. Fromm had four other nonproductive orientations that he devoted a great deal of attention to. These were receptive, exploitative, hoarding and marketing. Three of these orientations can be loosely compared to Freuds oral-dependent, oral-sadistic and anal character without the sexual implications. Freud and Fromm both believed that dreams are the royal road to the unconscious. ( Ewen 198) Fromm agreed with Freud that dreams could serve the purpose of wish fulfillment, that the days events set them off, and that a person may conceal truths in different ways. While both men believed in dream symbols, Freud believed most dreams involved childhood sexual impulses and Fromm regarded many symbols as asexual. Fromm believed that dreams could have obvious and undisguised meanings that did not have to involve childhood conflicts. To understand Fromms approach to clinical diagnosis, his theory of character must first be understood. His theory of character development was that humans are distinguished from other animals by a larger neocortex with fewer instincts. Character shapes human instinct. Human survival is not merely a matter of physical survival, humans are social animals who must relate to others, and they are spiritual animals who must infuse their lives with meaning in order to function. Humans require a sense of hope to keep from turning off. They also require caring adults in the early years to be teachers that teach them to control their fears and passions and live in harmony with others. Religion both sacred and secular can give meaning to life and give a sense of identity and rootness. Fromm accepted Freuds definition of mental health saying that it is the capacity for love and productive work. Fromm also agreed with Freud in saying that psychopathology represents a difference in degree, rather than in kind. Fromm states that besides pathogenic behaviors that neurosis is often caused by the culture in which one lives. He says that neurosis consists of a conflict between two opposing forces. Which is when our healthy innate drives toward self-realization and independence are blocked by parental or societal influences. Freud states that neurosis invariably begins in infancy and childhood, however it may not become evident until much later in life. Some causes of neurosis is a lack of physical affection, overindulgence or

Network Trend II - Report on Japan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Network Trend II - Report on Japan - Essay Example pp 58). With passage of time Japan endowed unwavering focus has been able to achieve this dream through nation based programs. Japan tailors its own employees during their college and schooling ways so that the curriculum they pursue is relevant to the job market so that some of the skills taught during schooling don't go to waste. Japanese people capitalize on specializing in the area of labor which comes with multiple advantages such as:-minimizing time wastage which results to more efficiency and productivity (Arlington, 2002. pp 66). As a result there is duty simplification as employees become more and more effective due to exposure and repetition of the same task. Concentration on one recurring task equips workers with expertise in their little time is spent moving between tasks so overall time wasted is reduced. The overall goal attained is quality productivity (Arlington, 2002. pp 72). Japan brings forth motivated hardworking labor force, in the working culture of Japan employees are given many incentives in order to stick to one job. Japanese unlike many other nations do not hop fro job to job they tend to stay in one company and as a result employees attain expertise and built up that company the culture of innovation and advancement in companies is that built making Japan a big economy. Japan's success in information technology is accrued largely to its commitment and support of industries in the linked technologies (Arlington, 2002. pp 85).It has hence put a lot concentration producing superior semiconductors, chip-making skill, and records storage devices, amongst others Information related technologies(Arlington, 2002. pp 88). Japan's success in the computer industries has led to significant market share; the profits have been further reinvested and Japanese capital expenditures have remained high. Though Japan was somewhat frail in software industry this weakness is checked by the industries who took the initiative to train fresh graduates (Arlington, 2002. pp 93) Employer-sponsored programs continuing education in Japan was rigorous and efficient as a result of employee mobility. Some of key ideas in Japan were going global in pursuit of new markets and opportunities, outsourcing outdated technologies and relocating some of it is companies to the suitable markets. Japanese companies were using the proceeds from their success in end user electronics and other information industries to launch themselves other places around the globe (Arlington, 2002. pp 128). The Japanese were experimenting with a vast number of computer structural designs (Arlington, 2002. pp 66). Although their projects were based on American structures, the gap amid the U.S roots and the initial Japanese scheme had narrowed from over a decade and Japan was furiously catching up with the U.S at a very impressive speed. Strategically Japan advanced in computer architectural designing. Hardware making, prototype designing, vector developing and in the area pipeline design, keen hardware replication arc, multimedia workstations, and technology transfer formed their basic areas of strength. Japanese people are detail